Rarer are those, on the other hand, that specify in what way Japan’s diplomatic letter was “insolent”, namely its use of the character “hwang”, to refer to the Japanese emperor, which officially placed him above the Korean “wang”, Han‑Il kwan’gye 2 ch’ŏn nyŏn (kŭn hyŏndae), Some Korean historians are more radical and reject any causal link between Korea’s refusal to “open up” and the. were then quick to use this refusal to justify an operation that in reality aimed to deflect the samurais’ dissatisfaction away from Japan, just as during Hideyoshi’s invasions. » (The Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform: Revival or Decline of Nationalism? At most they can communicate their wishes (kibō‑hyō 希望票) to the education boards or deliberation councils, with no guarantee that they will be taken into consideration. Fish, “A Call for Outrage? His central claim concerning the unconstitutional nature of the textbook authorisation system was rejected. cit., p. 99. ), Chōsen‑shi 朝鮮史, Yamakawa Shuppan 山川出版, 1993, pp. They see this as best evidenced by the existence of the “Japanese Embassy” in Pusan.67, 49Thus, Korea had not refused to “open up” but merely to change the nature of the friendly relations it had maintained since the beginning of the Edo period. Consequently, there are currently only two textbooks for the compulsory teaching of Korean history: one for junior high and one for senior high.22, 17Given these circumstances, it is easy for Japanese revisionists to discredit South Korea’s criticisms by presenting them as illustrating the country’s desire to impose its vision of history upon the Japanese.23 However pertinent its demands may be, South Korea undeniably suffers from this comparison to Japan with regards its textbook selection system, a problem of which many Korean historians are also aware.24. between the Yamato court and the states making up the Kaya region, which were used by the latter to resist neighbouring Paekche and Silla. Second, a new Japanese history textbook which was written by right-wing organizations and Yasukuni-jinja will be discussed objectively. , the Koreans owe their liberation to the military intervention of the Allies. (Statement by the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform on the adoption of history and civics textbooks for 2005): http://www.tsukurukai.com/02_about_us/05_adopt.html (23 October 2008). Whether real or imagined, this fear is fuelled by incidents such as the approval of the Tsukuru‑kai textbook or the prime ministerial visits to Yasukuni Shrine, which are seen as warning signs of a possible remilitarisation of Japan. The underlined passage was removed from the second edition (2006). (The Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform: Revival or Decline of Nationalism? In 1592 (Bunroku 1), he sent a vast army to Korea with the intent of conquering the Ming Dynasty (China). 50 Atarashii rekishi kyōkasho, op. 43 The term “shinryaku” is also used by the Ōsaka Shoseki (p. 91) and Kyōiku Shuppan (p. 79) textbooks. It was the first in a series of materials published under the supervision of the United States. In instances where the selection area consists of several municipalities, districts or villages, a deliberation council (. ) This is illustrated by the, reaction to the crisis of 2001, but also the survey carried out by the television channel. 26 Robert A. This does not mean that this episode in the two countries’ shared history is not a controversial su, Contrary to what one might think, the annexation of Korea is thus not a particularly problematic subject as far as history textbooks are concerned. See Yi Wŏnsun and Chŏng Chaejŏng (eds. Nikkan kōryū no rekishi: senshi kara gendai made. 1, Seoul, Chaja, , 2001, p. 282 (this author mentions however the presence of Chinese among 16, , 1993, pp. In the Japanese embassy set up in Pusan, Korea, silver and bronze were exported while cotton, Korean ginseng and raw silk were imported. Although the research of Yoshimi Yoshiaki and other scholars has clearly demonstrated the Imperial Army’s role in setting up “comfort stations” and recruiting “comfort women”. 81 While Japanese specialists now seem to agree that the Nihon‑fu was not an instrument for Yamato’s colonial domination of Kaya, opinions differ as to the nature of this organ: diplomatic delegation, trading post, embassies, etc. Japanese Textbook Controversies, Nationalism, and Historical Memory: Intra- and Inter-national Conflicts Yoshiko NOZAKI and Mark Selden Japan’s neonationalists have launched three major attacks on school textbooks over the past half century.1 Centered on the treatment of colonialism and war, the attacks surfaced in 1955, the late 1970s, and the mid-1990s. Accordingly, I have retained only those subjects posing a problem not merely in the Tsukuru‑kai textbook, but also in Japan’s representative texts —in particular the Tōkyō Shoseki textbook— and which thus denote genuine differences in the two countries’ perception of events. 10One of the problems with this procedure lies in the appointment of examiners, whose report is often a key element in the decision made by the Authorisation Council. Although the controversy specifically concerned the factors behind the. 20 Kim Hanjong 김한종, Yŏksa kyoyuk kwajŏng kwa kyogwasŏ yŏngu 역사교육과정과 교과서연구 (Textbook Research and the Process of Teaching History), Seoul, Sŏn’in 선인, 2005, pp. It was until 1997 that the Supreme Court finally ruled that the ministry abused its discretion with regard to the unconstitutional censoring of Ienaga's description of four matters including the Unit 731 and Nanjing Massacre. However, the biased view presented by the Tsuruku‑kai textbook is rarely shared by other Japanese texts. The former believe that late‑fourteenth‑century, consisted partly, or even mainly, of Koreans, and insist on the need to consider the term. (17 January 2008). For example, the Tsukuru‑kai textbook claimed that “the Yamato army came to the aid of Paekche and Silla and waged violent battles against Koguryŏ” (p. 38), whereas in reality the Koguryŏ army drove back the Japanese at the request of Silla. Deprived of the satisfaction of having recovered their independence by their own means, the Koreans found themselves victors of the Second World War without the benefits. As in Japan, it was in the mid‑1990s (1994 for senior high school textbooks and 1996 for junior high school) that the term “comfort women for the Japanese Army” (. to the education boards or deliberation councils, with no guarantee that they will be taken into consideration. La comparaison avec les éditions suivantes des manuels montre en outre que de part et d’autre, certaines leçons ont été tirées afin d’éviter qu’une crise de l’ampleur de 2001 ne se reproduise. In other words, Korea suffered the collateral damage of a more ambitious operation of which it was not the primary target. originated predominantly from Japan, and in particular Shikoku and Kyūshū. During this period even women were drafted into so‑called female volunteer battalions [chŏngsindae 挺身隊] and sacrificed at comfort stations for the Japanese Army.78. 24 Song Kiho 송기호, Tongasia ŭi yŏksa punjaeng 동아시아의 역사 분쟁 (Historical Disputes in East Asia), Seoul, Sol 솔, 2007, p. 41. that had existed between the two nations for several centuries. Japanese history textbooks fail to mention Gojoseon (Dan-gun Joseon), the first nation state in Korea which is believed to have been established about 2,333 B.C. A Victory for Freedom? In 1954, after the Korean War and the division of the country, South Korea adopted a hybrid system combining state‑authorised textbooks (kukchŏng 國定) –notably for studying the national language– and approved textbooks (kŏminjŏng 檢認定) for the teaching of history and geography. An illustrative example of this tendency of the Tsukuru‑kai textbook is its description of the 1910 annexation of Korea: he underlined passage was removed from the sec, The Japanese government saw the annexation of Korea as vital to protect Japanese security and defend its interests in Manchuria. 767, October 2002, p. 23. The previous edition (2001) of the Korean history textbook presented the three kingdoms’ foreign relations as follows: During the time of King Kŭnch’ogo, Ajikki and Wangin travelled to Japan and. However, many peasants were driven from their land in the course of this survey. cit., p. 149. This was refused by the Korean government, which believed that establishing diplomatic relations with Japan would automatically lead to Western interference.”. Firstly, they underline Korea’s refusal to modify the traditional context of neighbourly relations between the two countries rather than its refusal to “open up”.69 They claim that Meiji leaders purposely used terms that disparaged the Korean monarch’s status in order to provoke a refusal from Korea. 46Although in its criticism the Korean government placed responsibility for Korea’s refusal to “open up” with the Meiji leaders’ decision to unilaterally break off the historically friendly relations between the two countries, it did not specify in what way the Japanese request to establish new diplomatic ties undermined Japanese‑Korean relations. In addition to managing diplomatic relations, the Tsushima domain obtained permission to trade [with Korea]. cit., p. 367. He simply points out that Hideyoshi requested permission from the Yi Dynasty to transit through Korea in order to invade China. Such an explanation, suggesting that Korea was above all a victim of her geographic location rather than a deliberately aggressive act by Japan, does not seem to satisfy the Korean government. 141‑146; Chōsen‑shi Kenkyū‑kai, , 1995, pp. 1, op. ”. On the other hand, responsibility for choosing textbooks at public schools (kōritsu gakkō 公立学校), which are grouped according to selection areas (saitaku chiku 採択地区), lies with the Municipal Boards of Education (Shichōson Kyōiku Iinkai 市町村教育委員会). The six publishers are: Kŭmsŏng Ch’ulp’ansa, (National History, Junior High), Seoul, Kyohaksa, However, the reintroduction in 2002 of an authorisation system to select textbooks for teaching modern and contemporary Korean history (Han’guk kŭn‑hyŏndae kyogwasŏ. ) University professors or lecturers, these examiners are hired on the recommendation of previous examiners or members of the Authorisation Council according to criteria that remain vague and place a question mark over the examiners’ impartiality.16, 11The actual selection of junior high school textbooks varies according to the type of school. The sole reproach made of a majority of Japanese textbooks concerned the absence of any mention of “comfort women”.72. 44The wording of the Tōkyō Shoseki textbook could be construed as suggesting that Korea was only closed to Westerners and not to the Japanese, an image that more closely resembles the Korean stance. This outcry prompted the Suzuki Zenkō 鈴木善幸 administration to offer an apology and add a so‑called Neighbouring Country Clause (kinrin shokoku jōkō 近隣諸国条項) to the textbook authorisation system stipulating the need to show understanding and seek international harmony when dealing with Asia’s modern and contemporary history. ” as an attempt to conceal the fact that this was a unilateral act of aggression by Japan. 2, Seoul, Kyŏngsewŏn 경세원, 2005, p. 72.; Han Ugŭn 한우근, Kaejŏngp’an Hanguk t’ongsa 改訂版 韓國通史, Seoul, Ŭryu Munhwasa 乙酉文化社, 2001, p. 282 (this author mentions however the presence of Chinese among 16th‑century Wakō); Carter J. Eckert et al., Korea Old and New, A History, Harvard UP, 1990, p. 100; Michael J. Seth, op. Chungse Koryŏ Ilbon kwan’gye ŭi chaengchŏm: Monggol ŭi Ilbon ch’imnyak kwa Waegu, Korean scholars refute this theory. In 2002 the usage rates for these junior high school textbooks were as follows: Tōkyō Shoseki, (New Society, History), Tōkyō Shoseki, 2006. The Annexation of Korea and Japanese Participation in World War I as Portrayed in the Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho and Competing Japanese Junior High School History Textbooks”, Studies on Asia, series iii, vol. 59This is also the case for another sensitive issue, namely relations between Yamato and the Kaya (Kara) Confederacy in the south of the Korean peninsula, particularly the alleged establishment in the second half of the fourth century of a “Japanese colony” at Mimana (Mimana nihon‑fu setsu 任那日本府説).81. ), Han‑Chung‑Il yŏksa insik kwa Ilbon kyokwasŏ 한중일 역사인식과 일본교과서 (Korean, Chinese and Japanese Conceptions of History and Japanese Textbooks), Seoul, Yŏksa Pip’yŏngsa역사 비평사, 2002, p. 209. Their approach is not limited solely to analysing the “distortions” but also strives to identify the positive aspects, from which Korean textbooks could take inspiration. Examination of the history textbooks screened in 1981 for use in senior high schools in 1983 revealed that the Education Ministry had 'recommended' changes in certain passages describing the activities of' the Japanese military in Asian countries before and during World War II. 52 Atarashii shakai rekishi, op. In this way, the three kingdoms introduced an advanced culture to Japan, which greatly contributed to the development of ancient Japanese culture during the Asuka period.86, 64This succession of terms such as “teach” and “introduce” did not fail to rile the Japanese far right, which condemned Korea’s propensity to emphasise the cultural superiority of the Three Kingdoms over Japan during this period (6th century).87 From its opening pages the Korean textbook painted a picture of Japan‑Korea relations which basically consisted of two images: on the one hand a Korea that generously introduced its advanced culture to Japan, and on the other, a Japan that repaid Korea with aggression.88. Consequently, this passage was modified in the following edition (2006) to read: “the Yamato army came to Paekche’s aid and waged violent battles against Koguryŏ” (p. 32). The previous edition (2001) of the Korean history textbook presented the three kingdoms’ foreign relations as follows: Paekche enjoyed close relations with Japan. responsible for examining the content of manuscripts, the council may make authorisation dependent on certain modifications being made. The passage in italics was modified as follows: “the Western powers, recognised Japan’s annexation of Korea in exchange for Japanese recognition of their colonial hold over India for Great Britain, Indochina for France, the Philippines for the United States and Outer Mongolia for Russia”, . ), op. This passage was modified in the second edition (2006) to read: “Around the middle of the sixteenth century, when the tally trade was suspended [teishi 停止]…” (p. 79). This will pose new threats to world peace.The author is curator of the Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders. During the time of King Muryŏng, Tan Yangi and Ko Anmu, among others, introduced the study of Han Dynasty texts (hanhak) and Confucianism. This was refused by the Korean government, which believed that establishing diplomatic relations with Japan would automatically lead to Western interference.”, (History of Modern Relations: Korea, China and Japan), Seoul, Yŏnse Taehakkyo Ch’ulp’anbu, (Two Thousand Years of Japan‑Korea Relations: Modern and Contemporary Eras), (Why the Debate over the Korean Expedition? Additionally, some Koreans and Chinese were forcibly taken to Japan where they lived extremely difficult lives with particularly harsh, , “Nihon no rekishi kyōkasho no waikyoku to rekishi ninshiki no mondai‑ten. The two countries maintained egalitarian relations and whenever a new shōgun was appointed, Korea sent embassies to Edo known as “Communication Envoys” (Tsūshinshi 通信使), which were warmly received wherever they went. Whether real or imagined, this fear is fuelled by incidents such as the approval of the Tsukuru‑kai textbook or the prime ministerial visits to Yasukuni Shrine, which are seen as warning signs of a possible remilitarisation of Japan.98, 75Despite the joint endeavours aiming to reduce the differences of opinion, voices in both countries question the pertinence of efforts aimed at building a shared historical consciousness. A joint working committee has recently been formed by the National Association of Japanese Canadians’ ( NAJC) Human Rights Committee and the Vancouver & Toronto Chapters of the Association for Learning & Preserving the History of World War II in Asia . in reality selects the textbooks, with the various municipal education boards merely ratifying their decision. Comparison with succeeding editions of the textbooks indicates that both sides have drawn the conclusions to avoid a similar crisis. This explanation is often repeated by Korean historians, who mention the “insolence” (, . cit., p. 151. 43The Tsukuru‑kai textbook is not the only Japanese textbook to link the emergence of the Seikan‑ron controversy to Korea’s refusal to “open up”: In 1871 a treaty (Nisshin shūkō jōki 日清修好条規) was signed with the Qing on an equal footing but Korea, which was a tributary state of China, remained closed to Westerners and refused to establish diplomatic relations with the Meiji government. , Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2006, p. 32. of four or five hundred people dispatched to Japan each time a new shogun was appointed. Certainly, voices in Japan continue to question whether or not these women were forcibly enlisted, but they have not challenged the Japanese government’s official position as represented by the “Kōno Statement” (Kōno danwa. The aim of this paper is to consider the “history textbook issue” from both the Japanese and Korean perspectives. […] Within Korea, there were also voices in favour of annexation, but, there was bitter resistance to the loss of Korea’s independence and movements to regain it continued resolutely. Their approach is not limited solely to analysing the “distortions” but also strives to identify the positive aspects, from which Korean textbooks could take inspiration. Against the Censorship and Distortion of Historical Facts in History Textbooks by the Japanese Government June 1997. Admittedly, the textbook controversy has convinced many Chinese that Japan has still not managed to rid itself of its militarist demons and that this anomaly is liable to recur. 42‑43. While the government has not proposed its own interpretation of the causes of the invasion, the Korean textbook leaves no doubt as to Japan’s designs on Korea: In a bid divert the attention of disgruntled Japanese away from Japan and give free rein to his desire to advance, across the continent, [Hideyoshi] decided to invade Korea. Private schools (, are free to choose any authorised text. or the political use of textbooks in Japan’s nationalist discourse. however, it nonetheless continues the trend of describing a closed Korea refusing all diplomatic relations. , “Hanguk ŭi kyogwasŏ undong kŭ sŏngkwa wa kwaje. The Ministry of Education’s attempts to whitewash the reality of Japan’s actions in China, by requesting for example that authors replace the term “invasion” (shinryaku 侵略) by “advancement” (shinshutsu 進出), unleashed a flurry of protests within Asia. Admittedly, the textbook controversy has convinced many Chinese that Japan has still not managed to rid itself of its militarist demons and that this anomaly is liable to recur. 60 Atarashii shakai rekishi, op. Only 10% considered these demands justified. The Third World Congress of Education International, meeting in Jomtien, Thailand, from 25 to 29 July, 2001: 1. This barbaric practice began in the early 1930s and continued until the defeat of the Japanese Empire in 1945.79, 57Despite the gradual disappearance of any mention of “comfort women” in Japanese textbooks, it should be pointed out that this event is hardly the subject of debate among Japanese and Korean historians, with most specialists largely in agreement with the views of Yoshimi Yoshiaki. , “Kuksa ŭi an kwa pakk: hegemoni wa kuksa ŭi taey. In other words, the Japanese aggression that began in the late nineteenth century is a trauma whose consequences remain visible today, but which is fundamentally seen as an anomaly. The first crisis arose in 1982 during the screening process for new history textbooks. In the following 20 years, references to Japan’s aggression and war crimes were sternly banned in history textbooks. However, many peasants were driven from their land in the course of this survey. Consequently, many Koreans, both the young and men in the prime of their lives, perished on various fronts. While all junior high school textbooks mentioned the term “comfort women” in 1996, only three did so in 2001 and just one in 2006. and a simplistic portrayal of Japan, which is described essentially as an aggressor or a diligent student that absorbed Korea’s “advanced” culture over hundreds of years. 댓글 2001-05-07 (월) 글꼴 크게 작게 인쇄 이메일 facebook twitter 구글. Perceptions in Korea are markedly different. A comparison of the main textbooks currently in use in the two countries will enable me to determine the extent to which their content has changed since the 2001 crisis. 150‑151. The debate has exacerbated nationalist pride and animosity, as teachers and professors become soldiers in an intellectual war over events more than a half-century old or even two millennia older. 213, 278. Only two references remain to this aspect of Korea’s relations with Japan: [Paekche] encouraged Buddhism and set up cultural exchanges with China; friendly relations were also enjoyed with the Wa, and [Paekche] introduced many cultural elements, in particular Buddhism. According to this book, the “communication envoys” were invited to Edo by Japan where they “carried out intense diplomatic activities, notably by meeting with the shōgun”. 47 Kim Munja 김문자, “Chŏnjaeng kwa p’yŏnghwa ŭi kŭnse Han‑Il kwan’gye: Imjin Waeran kwa t’ongsinsa” 전쟁과 평화의 근세 한일 관계: 임진돼란과 통신사 (War and Peace in Early‑modern Relations Between Japan and Korea: Hideyoshi’s Invasions and the Communication Envoys) in Yi Kyehwang 이계황 et al., op. Historical negationism, also called denialism, is falsification or distortion of the historical record. This succession of terms such as “teach” and “introduce” did not fail to rile the Japanese far right, which condemned Korea’s propensity to emphasise the cultural superiority of the Three Kingdoms over Japan during this period (6. Three points were raised by the Korean government. It was the first in a series of materials published under the supervision of the United States. Liu Jie 劉傑, Mitani Hiroshi 三谷博, Yang Daqing 楊大慶 (eds. Only two references remain to this aspect of Korea’s relations with Japan: Part of Kaya’s political forces emigrated to Japan and contributed to the cultural development of ancient Japan. cit., pp. 10, 2003, p. 14. Concerning the first two points, namely the resumption of diplomatic relations and sending of Korean embassies, the Korean government merely criticised the imprecision of Japanese textbooks but refrained from providing its own interpretation of the reasons behind this rapprochement. 88 Tei and Furuta (eds. ‑Century Debates on the Legality of Japan’s Annexation of Korea: History and Legitimacy). Based on a report written by “examiners” (kyōkasho chōsakan 教科書調査官) responsible for examining the content of manuscripts, the council may make authorisation dependent on certain modifications being made. According to The Korea Times, Korean and Japanese women's rights organizations are planning to publish a joint women's history textbook in both countries to counter the distortion in Japan's official textbook. Introduction . It forcibly recruited Koreans to work in harsh conditions in mines and factories, and set up a system for conscripting and mobilising students as voluntary soldiers [chiwŏnbyŏng 志願兵]. While the approval of the Tsukuru‑kai textbook certainly revealed Korea’s extreme sensitivity to historical issues, it has also encouraged a re‑evaluation of Korean history textbooks. For a detailed examination of the joint initiatives designed to defuse the history‑related controversies in East Asia, see L. Babicz, “Japon, Chine, Corée : vers une conscience historique commune ?” (Japan, China, Korea: Towards a Shared Historical Consciousness? China, for its part, merely demanded the modification of eight passages from the, (The Problems with Japanese History Textbooks), Seoul, Tongbang Midiŏ, anniversary of the end of the Second World War, in which Murayama Tomiichi apologised (“. ) 82 The Korean government sees the use of phrases such as “Yamato lost its influence over the Korean peninsula” (Tōkyō Shoseki) or “subsequently, the influence [of Yamato] over the Korean peninsula waned” (Ōsaka Shoseki) to describe relations between Japan and Korea during the 6th century as unacceptable, for they are based on the “erroneous” idea that Yamato ruled Kaya as of the 4th century. ), Ajia no naka no nihon‑shi, op. Since then, the subject has been the focus of increasing attention: The Japanese Empire did not content itself with plundering raw materials. cit., p. 358. ), this was also due to the negative image. The Korean government seems to have understood this, as illustrated by the events of 2002, when the screening process for senior high school history textbooks led the Korean media to denounce new “distortions”, notably the, was part of Japan. 150‑151. Two details were modified in the second edition (2006): “maintained relations” was replaced by “established relations”; “between 400 and” was removed (p. 106). . Consequently, this passage was modified in the following edition (2006) to read: “the Yamato army came to Paekche’s aid and waged violent battles against Koguryŏ” (p. 32). For a detailed examination of the joint initiatives designed to defuse the history‑related controversies in East Asia, see L. , “Japon, Chine, Corée : vers une conscience historique commune ? 1, 2004, p. 32. Korea refused and for some time feared a retaliatory attack from the Japanese. 4 Yi Wŏnsun 이원순 and Chŏng Chaejŏng 정재정 (eds. Although the term comfort women has practically disappeared from junior. 13Korean specialists make no bones about denouncing the constraints imposed upon Japanese textbook authors, who are forced to accept the state‑ordained ideology, with some of them likening the Japanese system to “censorship” (kŏmyŏl 檢閲).19 These very real problems, which are also the subject of debate in Japan itself, nonetheless remain minor compared to the situation in Korea, where the government has virtually total control over textbooks. As for Kaya, it introduced pottery‑making. The first Korean‑language secondary school history textbook was published in May 1946 following the country’s liberation. 38 Nam Kihak 남기학, “Chungse Koryŏ Ilbon kwan’gye ŭi chaengchŏm: Monggol ŭi Ilbon ch’imnyak kwa Waegu” 중세 고려・일본 관계의 쟁점 : 몽골의 일본 침략과 왜구, in Yi Kyehwang 이계황 et al., Kiŏk ŭi chŏnjaeng : Hyŏndae Ilbon ŭi yŏksa insik kwa Han‑Il kwan’gye 기억의 전쟁 현대 일본의 역사인식과 한일관계, Seoul, Ihwa Yŏja Taehakkyo Ch’ulp’anbu 이화여자대학교출판부, 2003, p. 163; Chang Tŭkjin 장득진, “Waegu nŭn Ilbonin in’ga Hangugin in’ga” 왜구는 일본인인가 한국인인가 (Were Wakō Korean or Japanese? : his main target was not the only Japanese textbook to be a concrete example of a. Actualité du révisionnisme historique au Japon » ( the Historical record 인쇄 이메일 facebook twitter 구글 is. I would like to thank Lionel Babicz for bringing this issue to my attention two are stude. 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